印度-帕提亞王國

印度-帕提亚王国
Indo-Parthian Kingdom
印度-帕提亚王国; Indo-Parthian Kingdom;
	公元前12年－约公元130年
	印度-帕提亚帝国鼎盛时期疆域
首都	塔克西拉; 喀布尔
常用语言	亞拉姆語; 希腊语（希腊字母）; 巴利语（佉卢字母）; 梵语、普拉克里特诸语言（婆罗米字母）安息语
宗教	; 大乘佛教; 琐罗亚斯德教; 古希臘宗教
政府	君主制
国王
• 公元前20年	冈多法勒斯一世
历史时期	古代史
• 冈多法勒斯一世	公元前12年
• 终结	约公元130年
先前国	继承国
	帕提亚帝国
贵霜帝国

印度-帕提亚王国为公元1世纪前后的一个王国，由冈多法勒斯王朝及其他一些中亚君主统治，疆域约为今阿富汗部分、巴基斯坦以及印度西北部。大多数时期，冈多法勒斯王朝都居于塔克西拉（今巴基斯坦旁遮普省），但在王朝最后几年里，首都在喀布尔和白沙瓦之间变动。虽然王国铸造的硬币多启发自安息帝國，但他们本身可能属于居住在帕提亚以东的伊朗人部落。并无证据显示所有国王都冠以「冈多法勒斯」（意为「荣耀获得者」）。此外，王国还以世界遗产——佛教僧院塔克特依巴依而知名。

印度-帕提亞王國，也稱為蘇倫王國，[1] 是由蘇倫家族裡的岡多法勒斯分支建立的帕提亞王國，統治時期為公元19年至約 224/5年。在他們的極盛時期，他們統治的地區涵蓋了伊朗東部的部分地區，多處阿富汗的地區以及印度次大陸的西北地區（現代巴基斯坦的部分地區和印度西北部）。

王國成立於公元19年，當時蘇倫王國的統治者岡多法勒斯（Gondophares），擔任蘭德加納（錫斯坦）的總督，他宣布脫離安息帝國（Parthian Empire）。後來，他向西征戰，從印度-塞西亞人和印度-希臘人手中征服了領土，從而將他的王國變成了一個帝國。[2]公元 1世紀下半葉，由於貴霜帝國（Kushans）入侵，印度-帕提亞人的領土大幅減少。他們設法保留了對錫斯坦地區的控制權，直到薩珊王朝在約公元224/225年征服它為止。[3]

印度-帕提亞人以建造佛教塔克特依巴依僧院（Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi ）（聯合國教科文組織認定的世界文化遺產）而聞名。

历史

印度-帕提亚王国开拓者冈多法勒斯的肖像，其中，他穿戴有头冠、耳环、项链等

冈多法勒斯一世起初可能为今伊朗东部锡斯坦统治者。大约在公元前20年代[4]，其征服了原印度-塞西亞王國的领土，这一切可能发生于印度-塞西亚王国重要统治者阿泽斯离世之后。冈多法勒斯所统治的区域囊括了阿拉霍西亞、锡斯坦、信德, 旁遮普以及喀布尔谷，但应未超过旁遮普地区东部[5]。他自称为「众王之王」，此头衔恰当地反映出王国内部松散的结构：许多小王朝仍旧存在其中，得以保全，来换取他们对冈多法勒斯及其继任者承认与效忠。西薩特拉普王朝踞于古吉拉特，可能就与王朝相邻。

世界遗产塔克特依巴依

冈多法勒斯去世之后，王国开始分裂。Sarpedones（可能为前者之子）成为「冈多法勒斯二世」。尽管冈多法勒斯二世宣称自己为主要统治者，但其统治仍旧摇摇欲坠。他在信德、旁遮普东部、阿富汗南部的阿拉霍西亞发行了货币。之后冈多法勒斯的侄子Abdagases继位，但不久之后即为Orthagnes篡位，后者成为冈多法勒斯三世「伽达纳」。之后伽达纳的儿子Ubouzanes继位。公元20年后，Sases夺回Abdagases的位置，成为「冈多法勒斯四世」。塔克特依巴依的题字正是他所书[6]。

此外，还有一些不甚知名的国王，如曾短暂篡位的Sanabares，再如也叫做Abdagases的国王等。

但是印度-帕提亚王国再未企及冈多法勒斯一世的高度，公元1世纪中期，丘就却治下的貴霜帝國开始蚕食印度北部的领土。到最后一任国王Pacores（约在公元100年之前）时[7]，仅残余锡斯坦及坎大哈。

印度-帕提亞人設法保住了對錫斯坦（Sakastan）的控制，一直維持到安息帝國被薩珊王朝滅亡為止。[8]

文学记载

在一些古老的文学作品中对印度-帕提亚王国亦有所提及。在圣经《新约》有关多马的故事中提到，多马曾在印度宫廷中为国王冈达法尔做过木匠[9]。其中冈达法尔应该即为冈多法勒斯。《使徒多馬行傳》在第十七章中描述了使徒多馬訪問印度北部國王古德納法爾的經歷。第2章和第3章將他描述為正在乘船前往印度，從而將使徒多馬推論是到到印度的西海岸。

根據印度-塞西亞人錢幣專家 Robert C. Senior [10] 說，[11] 這位冈达法尔（Gudnaphar）通常被認為是第一位的 Gondophares，即岡多法勒斯一世，但是沒有證據支持這一假設，這位冈达法尔（Gudnaphar）的時期是在基督教的將臨期之後，Robert C. Senior 的研究表明，岡多法勒斯一世的時期有可能是在公元元年之前。如果行傳說的是歷史事件的話，使徒多馬可能遇到的是後期一位擁有相同名銜的國王。

古希腊哲学家提亚纳的阿波罗尼乌斯曾前往印度，并于约46年到往塔克西拉。他描绘了此处希腊风格的建筑[12]。在交谈中，冈多法勒斯提及自己从其父那里学得一口流利的希腊语[13][14]。

“國王，請告訴我，您是如何獲得說那麼流利的希臘語的能力，而會說希臘語，讓您在這兒獲得您的哲學素養的？” [15]

[...]-“我的父親在接受了希臘教育之後，在我年紀可能很小的時候帶我去飽學之士那兒，那時我才十二歲而已，但他們像親生的兒子一樣撫養我長大；因為他們了解他說的他們特別喜歡的希臘語，而且他們認為，由於他和他們的性格相似，已經屬於他們的同類了。” [16]

《厄立特利亚海航行记》提到，冈多法勒斯于信德地区作战，在印度河河口一带，斯基提亚的重要城市明纳伽拉落入在帕提亚人手中，后者驱逐每一个异邦人离开。[17]

“這條河（印度河）有七個淺水和泥濘的河口，除了中部的那一個河口之外，其他河口都無法通航；在岸邊是叫巴卡力坎的集鎮，在它之前有一個小島，而內陸後面是叫明納加拉的斯基提亞（Scythia）都會；這個城市由幾位帕提亞王子控制，但是他們之間經常會鬥爭而把對方驅出城市。”波利普拉斯（Periplus）的厄立特利亞海航行記，第38章[18]

对于战争的时间，塔克特依巴依题词中有两个记法，其一为Guduvhara国王26年（推测为冈多法勒斯），另一个为未知纪年103年[19]。

考古研究

塔克西拉（Taxila）這個城市被認為是印度-帕提亞人的首都。約翰馬歇爾爵士在這裡曾做過較大面積地層的挖掘工作，挖出相當數量帶有帕提亞風格的文物。從印度-帕提亞時代起，附近的建戴爾的一座廟宇通常被推認為瑣羅亞斯德教（Zoroastrian）的火神廟。

在其货币及犍陀罗艺术品中，印度-帕提亚人被描绘为身着交叉的短夹克及宽松的长裤。[20]。他们的夹克装饰有一排排奖章等。他们通常头发浓密，并带有头带（这种做法在公元1世纪主要由帕提亚人采用）[21]。

在犍陀罗发现了许多石制带有雕刻的圆盘，代表着印度-帕提亚王国的艺术。这些雕刻结合了希腊和波斯的风格，被认为是帕提亚艺术特征的表现形式。但其只在印度-希臘王國、印度-塞西亚王国和印度-帕提亚王国相对应的考古层中发现，在之前的孔雀王朝及之后的贵霜王朝并未发现。[22]

印度-帕提亞人的宗教

儘管我們仍不知道蘇倫家族的宗教信仰，但是我們知道他們和信奉瑣羅亞斯德教的阿爾薩希德王朝存在著宗教衝突。[23] 與印度-希臘人或印度-塞西亞人不同，沒有印度-帕提亞王國統治者支持佛教的明確記錄，例如宗教奉獻，銘文，甚至是傳說故事。同樣，儘管印度-帕提亞錢幣通常緊跟隨希臘錢幣系統，但它們從未顯示過佛教的佛教三寶符號（除了後來的薩塞斯錢幣），也從未使用過大象或公牛的描繪，這兩種可能是被他們先人大量使用的宗教符號。人們認為他們自己是伊朗人，而保留了瑣羅亞斯德教的信仰。這伊朗人的神話系統是從後來統治包括現在巴基斯坦的白沙瓦-開伯爾-普什圖地區的貴霜帝國繼承而來，而貴霜帝國則是從印度-帕提亞人繼承而來。

在岡多法勒斯一世的統治時期，也發現過有發行鑄有印度教大神濕婆的錢幣。[24][25][26]

印度-帕提亞人的宗教信徒的表達

在他們的錢幣和健馱邏的藝術品上，印度-帕提亞人被描繪成穿有短的交叉夾克和寬鬆的大褲腳，可能還在褲管上披著一塊布。[27] 他們的夾克上裝飾著成排的裝飾環或獎章。他們的頭髮通常是濃密的，並帶有束髮帶，這是公元1世紀以來帕提亞人廣泛採用的一種服飾。[28]

在佛教靈修場景中，有時會有穿著印度-帕提亞人服飾的演員。通常認為，約翰馬歇爾爵士在塔克西拉附近的錫爾卡普進行的大多數發掘都與印度-帕提亞時代層有關，但是最近的學術研究有時將他們列為與印度-希臘人有關聯。[29] 這些考古研究提供了大量的希臘化文物，結合了佛教崇拜（佛塔）的元素。其他一些神廟，例如在建戴爾附近的，可能是被作為瑣羅亞斯德教的火神廟使用。

佛教雕塑

在印度-塞西亞晚期至印度-帕提亞層（第2層，公元1-60年）期間，在錫爾卡普發現的雕像表明，在印度-帕提亞人統治時或甚至是統治之前，健馱邏藝術已經發展起來。各種各樣的雕像，從古希臘神像到健馱邏的各種平民信徒，其中有被認為是結合了佛陀（Buddha）和菩薩（Bodhisattvas）早期的雕像。時至今日，還不清楚健馱邏國的希臘式佛教藝術到底何時才真正出現，但是錫爾卡普的發現確實表明，這種藝術在貴霜帝國出現之前就已經有高度發展了。

石材彩妝板

主條目：石材彩妝板在健馱邏國發現的眾多石材彩妝板被認為是印度-帕提亞藝術的代表。這些彩妝板結合了希臘和波斯的影響，以及代表作品中的正面外觀，被認為是帕提亞藝術的特徵。這些彩妝板僅在對應於印度-希臘人，印度-塞西亞人和印度-塞西亞人的考古層中發現，而在他們之前的孔雀王朝（Mauryan）層或後續的貴霜帝國層中，基本上是未知的。[30] 這些彩妝板通常代表神話場景中穿著希臘服飾的人，但其中有一些這是代表帕提斯風格的人（頭上的束髮帶，裸露的胸部穿交叉外套，佩戴珠寶，皮帶，寬鬆的褲子）。捷克布拉格納普斯泰克博物館收藏的一個彩妝板展示了一位印度-帕提亞國王盤腿坐在一張大椅上，旁邊有兩名穿著帕提亞服飾的僕人。他們被證明是僕人侍奉主人品嚐葡萄酒（wine）。

透過絲綢之路佛教的傳播

即使在公元226年薩珊王朝佔領了印度-帕提亞人的領土，仍有些小塊的印度-帕提亞人統治區留在東方。從公元2世紀開始，一些中亞佛教傳教士出現在中國的大都會如洛陽，有時甚至出現在南京，他們的翻譯工作尤其出眾。最早將佛教經書譯成中文的翻譯者實際上就是印度-帕提亞傳教士，他們冠以帕特人的姓氏“ An”，“ Anshi”，“ 安息帝國（country of Arsacids）”以與中國人姓氏有所區分。

安世高（An Shih Kao）是一位帕提亞（Parthian）的王子，他最早將小乘佛教經書（Hinayana Buddhist texts）翻譯成中文（公元148–170年）。
An Hsuan是一名帕提亞商人，於公元181年在中國成為僧侶。

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参考资料

脚注

Gazerani 2015, p. 26.
Rezakhani 2017, p. 35.
Olbrycht 2016, p. 25.
The chronology of the Gondopharid kings has long been uncertain, predominantly based on coins. This reconstruction is based on "Indo-Scythian Coins and History IV" by Robert Senior, CNG 2006, as the four volumes of Senior's work provide an almost complete catalogue of the coinage of the period. Senior's chronology is based on the existence of only one king Azes, a theory that was vindicated when it was shown that a coin of the so-called Azes II was overstruck with a type attributed to Azes I (see Senior, "The final nail in the coffin of Azes II", Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 197, 2008).
Rosenfield, p129
A votive inscription of the 26th year of Gudavhara or Gondophares, is reported to have been found on a stone at Takht-i-Bahi, northeast of Peshawar with a date in the year 103 of an unspecified era reckoning. This era is likely to have been the Malva or Vikrama era, founded in 57 BCE, this would give a date of 20 CE for this king's ascension (see Hindu calendar). The stone was formerly in the museum at Lahore. The point is especially important for those Christians who consider that a germ of history is embedded in the Acts of Thomas.
Pacores is not dated by Senior in Indo-Scythian Coins and History, but as Senior’s chronology is generally antedates the Indo-Parthian kings by a few decades, it follows that Pacores is probably also earlier than the date 100-130 AD, that was previously suggested.
Gazerani 2015, pp. 26-27.
見Senior. （英语）.
http://www.onsnumis.org/news/seniorcollection.shtml
see Senior, "The final nail in the coffin of Azes II".
Description of the Hellenistic urbanism of Taxila:
- "Taxila, they tell us, is about as big as Nineveh, and was fortified fairly well after the manner of Greek cities" (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 20) 页面存档备份，存于
- "I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as in Athens, and that the houses were built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one story, while if you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below the level of the earth as did the chambers above." (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 23) 页面存档备份，存于
. [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-07）.
. [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-03）.
. [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-07）.
. [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-03）.
. [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-08-14）.
. [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-08-14）.
Rosenfield, p130.
Described in "Rome's enemies, Parthians and Sassanid Persians", ISBN 0-85045-688-6
"Parthians, from about the 1st century AD, seem to have preferred to show off their carefully tonsured hair, usually only wearing a fillet of thick ribbon; before then, the Scythian cap or bashlyk was worn more frequently". In "Parthians and Sassanid Parthians" Peter Willcox ISBN 0-85045-688-6, p12
"Let us remind that in Sirkap, stone palettes were found at all excavated levels. On the contrary, neither Bhir-Mound, the Maurya city preceding Sirkap on the Taxila site, nor Sirsukh, the Kushan city succeeding her, did deliver any stone palettes during their excavations", in "Les palettes du Gandhara", p89. "The terminal point after which such palettes are not manufactured anymore is probably located during the Kushan period. In effect, neither Mathura nor Taxila (although the Sirsukh had only been little excavated), nor Begram, nor Surkh Kotal, neither the great Kushan archaeological sites of Soviet Central Asia or Afghanistan have yielded such objects. Only four palettes have been found in Kushan-period archaeological sites. They come from secondary sites, such as Garav Kala and Ajvadz in Soviet Tajikistan and Jhukar, in the Indus Valley, and Dalverzin Tepe. They are rather roughly made." In "Les Palettes du Gandhara", Henri-Paul Francfort, p91. (in French in the original)
Gazerani, Saghi. . Brill. : 111 [9 January 2019]. ISBN 9789004282964 （英语）.
Gondophares I Indological researches in India: selected works of Prof. K.D. Bajpai
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Volume 46 Pg. 274
Described in "Rome's enemies, Parthians and Sassanid Persians", ISBN 0-85045-688-6
"Parthians, from about the 1st century AD, seem to have preferred to show off their carefully tonsured hair, usually only wearing a fillet of thick ribbon; before then, the Scythian cap or bashlyk was worn more frequently". In "Parthians and Sassanid Parthians" Peter Willcox ISBN 0-85045-688-6, p12
Pierfrancesco Gallieri, in "Crossroads of Asia": "The parallels are so striking that it is not excluded that the objects discovered in Taxila and dated to between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE were in reality produced earlier, maybe by artisans who had followed the Greeks kings during their retreat from Bactria to India" p211 (in French in the original)
"Let us remind that in Sirkap, stone palettes were found at all excavated levels. On the contrary, neither Bhir-Mound, the Maurya city preceding Sirkap on the Taxila site, nor Sirsukh, the Kushan city succeeding her, did deliver any stone palettes during their excavations", in "Les palettes du Gandhara", p89. "The terminal point after which such palettes are not manufactured anymore is probably located during the Kushan period. In effect, neither Mathura nor Taxila (although the Sirsukh had only been little excavated), nor Begram, nor Surkh Kotal, neither the great Kushan archaeological sites of Soviet Central Asia or Afghanistan have yielded such objects. Only four palettes have been found in Kushan-period archaeological sites. They come from secondary sites, such as Garav Kala and Ajvadz in Soviet Tajikistan and Jhukar, in the Indus Valley, and Dalverzin Tepe. They are rather roughly made." In "Les Palettes du Gandhara", Henri-Paul Francfort, p91. (in French in the original)

书籍

"Les Palettes du Gandhara", Henri-Paul Francfort, Diffusion de Boccard, Paris, 1979
"Reports on the campaigns 1956–1958 in Swat (Pakistan)", Domenico Faccenna
"Sculptures from the sacred site of Butkara I", Domenico Faccena

外部链接

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[FOOTNOTEGazerani201526-1] Gazerani 2015, p. 26.

[FOOTNOTERezakhani201735-2] Rezakhani 2017, p. 35.

[FOOTNOTEOlbrycht201625-3] Olbrycht 2016, p. 25.

[4] The chronology of the Gondopharid kings has long been uncertain, predominantly based on coins. This reconstruction is based on "Indo-Scythian Coins and History IV" by Robert Senior, CNG 2006, as the four volumes of Senior's work provide an almost complete catalogue of the coinage of the period. Senior's chronology is based on the existence of only one king Azes, a theory that was vindicated when it was shown that a coin of the so-called Azes II was overstruck with a type attributed to Azes I (see Senior, "The final nail in the coffin of Azes II", Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 197, 2008).

[5] Rosenfield, p129

[6] A votive inscription of the 26th year of Gudavhara or Gondophares, is reported to have been found on a stone at Takht-i-Bahi, northeast of Peshawar with a date in the year 103 of an unspecified era reckoning. This era is likely to have been the Malva or Vikrama era, founded in 57 BCE, this would give a date of 20 CE for this king's ascension (see Hindu calendar). The stone was formerly in the museum at Lahore. The point is especially important for those Christians who consider that a germ of history is embedded in the Acts of Thomas.

[7] Pacores is not dated by Senior in Indo-Scythian Coins and History, but as Senior’s chronology is generally antedates the Indo-Parthian kings by a few decades, it follows that Pacores is probably also earlier than the date 100-130 AD, that was previously suggested.

[FOOTNOTEGazerani201526-27-8] Gazerani 2015, pp. 26-27.

[9] 見Senior. （英语）.

[10] ttp://www.onsnumis.org/news/seniorcollection.shtml

[11] see Senior, "The final nail in the coffin of Azes II".

[12] Description of the Hellenistic urbanism of Taxila:

"Taxila, they tell us, is about as big as Nineveh, and was fortified fairly well after the manner of Greek cities" (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 20) 页面存档备份，存于

"I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as in Athens, and that the houses were built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one story, while if you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below the level of the earth as did the chambers above." (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 23) 页面存档备份，存于

[13] "Taxila, they tell us, is about as big as Nineveh, and was fortified fairly well after the manner of Greek cities" (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 20) 页面存档备份，存于

[14] "I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as in Athens, and that the houses were built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one story, while if you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below the level of the earth as did the chambers above." (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 23) 页面存档备份，存于

[13] . [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-07）.

[14] . [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-03）.

[15] . [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-07）.

[16] . [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-03）.

[17] . [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-08-14）.

[18] . [2018-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-08-14）.

[19] Rosenfield, p130.

[20] Described in "Rome's enemies, Parthians and Sassanid Persians", ISBN 0-85045-688-6

[21] "Parthians, from about the 1st century AD, seem to have preferred to show off their carefully tonsured hair, usually only wearing a fillet of thick ribbon; before then, the Scythian cap or bashlyk was worn more frequently". In "Parthians and Sassanid Parthians" Peter Willcox ISBN 0-85045-688-6, p12

[22] "Let us remind that in Sirkap, stone palettes were found at all excavated levels. On the contrary, neither Bhir-Mound, the Maurya city preceding Sirkap on the Taxila site, nor Sirsukh, the Kushan city succeeding her, did deliver any stone palettes during their excavations", in "Les palettes du Gandhara", p89. "The terminal point after which such palettes are not manufactured anymore is probably located during the Kushan period. In effect, neither Mathura nor Taxila (although the Sirsukh had only been little excavated), nor Begram, nor Surkh Kotal, neither the great Kushan archaeological sites of Soviet Central Asia or Afghanistan have yielded such objects. Only four palettes have been found in Kushan-period archaeological sites. They come from secondary sites, such as Garav Kala and Ajvadz in Soviet Tajikistan and Jhukar, in the Indus Valley, and Dalverzin Tepe. They are rather roughly made." In "Les Palettes du Gandhara", Henri-Paul Francfort, p91. (in French in the original)

[Gazerani-23] Gazerani, Saghi. . Brill. : 111 [9 January 2019]. ISBN 9789004282964 （英语）.

[24] Gondophares I Indological researches in India: selected works of Prof. K.D. Bajpai

[25] Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Volume 46 Pg. 274

[27] Described in "Rome's enemies, Parthians and Sassanid Persians", ISBN 0-85045-688-6

[28] "Parthians, from about the 1st century AD, seem to have preferred to show off their carefully tonsured hair, usually only wearing a fillet of thick ribbon; before then, the Scythian cap or bashlyk was worn more frequently". In "Parthians and Sassanid Parthians" Peter Willcox ISBN 0-85045-688-6, p12

[29] Pierfrancesco Gallieri, in "Crossroads of Asia": "The parallels are so striking that it is not excluded that the objects discovered in Taxila and dated to between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE were in reality produced earlier, maybe by artisans who had followed the Greeks kings during their retreat from Bactria to India" p211 (in French in the original)

[30] "Let us remind that in Sirkap, stone palettes were found at all excavated levels. On the contrary, neither Bhir-Mound, the Maurya city preceding Sirkap on the Taxila site, nor Sirsukh, the Kushan city succeeding her, did deliver any stone palettes during their excavations", in "Les palettes du Gandhara", p89. "The terminal point after which such palettes are not manufactured anymore is probably located during the Kushan period. In effect, neither Mathura nor Taxila (although the Sirsukh had only been little excavated), nor Begram, nor Surkh Kotal, neither the great Kushan archaeological sites of Soviet Central Asia or Afghanistan have yielded such objects. Only four palettes have been found in Kushan-period archaeological sites. They come from secondary sites, such as Garav Kala and Ajvadz in Soviet Tajikistan and Jhukar, in the Indus Valley, and Dalverzin Tepe. They are rather roughly made." In "Les Palettes du Gandhara", Henri-Paul Francfort, p91. (in French in the original)